wealth of tamil nadu
Guindy National Park
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?Guindy National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Blackbuck, Guindy's flagship species
Guindy National Park
Coordinates: 13°00′09″N 80°13′51″E / 13.00259, 80.23079
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area• Elevation
2.70 km² (1 sq mi)• 6 m (20 ft)
Climate• PrecipitationTemperature• Summer• Winter
• 1,200 mm (47.2 in)• 38 °C (100 °F)• 20 °C (68 °F)
Nearest city
Chennai (Madras)
District(s)
Chennai
Established
1977
Visitation/year
700,000/2006[1]
Governing body
Ministry of Environment and Forests and Tamil Nadu Department of forests
Website: http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gnp.html
Coordinates: 13°00′09″N 80°13′51″E / 13.00259, 80.23079
Guindy National Park, A 2.82 km² (1 sq mi) Protected area of Tamil Nadu, located in Chennai, South India, is the 8th smallest National Park of India and one of the very few national parks situated inside a city. The park is an extension of the grounds surrounding Raj Bhavan, the official residence of the Governor of Tamilnadu, India. It extends deep inside the govornor's estate, enclosing beautiful forests, scrub lands, lakes and streams. Guindy Park was originally a game reserve, then owned by a British citizen named Gilbert Rodericks and transferred to the Tamil Nadu Forest Department in 1958.
Contents
[hide]
1 Flora and fauna
2 Guindy Snake Park and Children's Park
3 Visitor information
4 References
//
[edit] Flora and fauna
The Guindy National Park, Raj Bhavan and Indian Institute of Technology Madras habitat complex has historically enjoyed a certain degree of protection and has continued to support some of the last remnants of the natural habitats that typify the natural range of plant and animal biodiversity of north-eastern Tamil Nadu.[2]
The park has a dry evergreen scrub and thorn forest with over 350 species of plants including shrubs, climbers, herbs and grasses and over 24 varieties of trees, including the Sugar-apple, Atlantia monophylla, Wood-apple, Neem.
There are over 14 types of mammals including Antelope, 400 Black buck, Chital, 24 Jackal, Pangolin, 2000 Spotted deer, Jungle cat, Large Indian Civet, River otter, Hyena and Fox.
The park has dense forest, grasslands and water-bodies which provide an ideal habitat for over 100 species of birds including partridges, pheasants, parrots, quail, paradise fly-catcher, Black-winged kite, Honey Buzzard, Pariah kite and Eagle. Bird watchers anticipate migratory birds here like teals, garganeys, pochards, Medium egrets, large egrets, night herons, pond herons and open-billed storks every fall season.[3]
There are also many kinds of amphibians and snakes. Some species of tortoise and turtles- especially the endangered Star Turtle, lizards, geckos, chameleons and the common Indian monitor lizard are found here, as well as a large variety of insects including 60 species of spiders and 60 species of butterflies.
[edit] Guindy Snake Park and Children's Park
Guindy Snake Park, formerly the location of Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, is next to the Guindy National Park. There one can see King Cobra, pythons, vipers and other reptiles. 22 acres of GNP has been carved out into a children's park and play area at the northeast corner of the park with a collection of animals and birds. Animals in the children’s park include black buck, sambar, spotted deer, porcupine, hyena, jackal, python, grey pelican, night heron, cormorant, cockatiel, mongoose, bonnet monkey and common langur. The Snake park and Children’s park have separate entrances and independent entry fees. Drinking water, vendors and catering is available.
[edit] Visitor information
There is a new interpretation center about the bio diversity of the park. Entry into this protected reserve is restricted, and visitors can go into the core area only when escorted by a forest ranger from the Forests Department. [4]
Guindy Park is behind the Gandhi Mandapam, Kamaraj Memorial and Rajaji Memorial on Sardar Patel road on the southern outskirts of Chennai. The rear southeast edge of the park ajoins the campus of Indian Institute of Technology. Guindy station (Suburban Track) is 1 km away. Chennai Egmore Railway station is 9 km away. Chennai Central Railway station is 12 km away. Chennai airport is 8 km away.
For more details contact the Wildlife Warden, K.S.S.V.P. Reddy, 50 IV Main Road, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai – 600 020.or The Wildlife Warden, 259, Anna Salai, DMS Compound, IV Floor, Teynampet, Chennai 600 006 Phone : 24321471 or the Children's Park, Guindy. Enquiry Form[5]
Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
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?Gulf of MannarMarine National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal
Gulf of MannarMarine National Park
Coordinates: 09°01′00″N 78°43′00″E / 9.016667, 78.716667
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area
560 km² (216 sq mi)
Climate• Precipitation
• 900 mm (35.4 in)
Nearest city
Madurai 150 km
District(s)
Thoothukudi & Ramanathapuram
Established
1986
ref
[1]
Governing body
Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests
Coordinates: 09°01′00″N 78°43′00″E / 9.016667, 78.716667 The Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park is a protected area of India consisting of 21 small islands (islets) and adjacent coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar in the Indian Ocean. It lies 1 to 10 Km away from the east coast of Tamil Nadu, South India for 160 km between Thoothukudi (Tuticorin) and Dhanushkodi. It is the core area of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve which includes a 10 km buffer zone around the park, including the populated coastal area.[2] The park has a high diversity of plants and animals in its marine, intertidal and near shore habitats. Public access inside the Park is prohibited.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Flora and fauna
3 Habitation
4 Visitor Information
5 Notes
6 References
//
[edit] Geography
The 560 km² (216.2 sq mi) park is part of the 140 km long and 25 km wide Mannar barrier reef. It lies between 8° 47’ to 9° 15’ N latitude and 78° 12’ to 79° 14’ E longitude. The 21 islands vary from 0.25 ha (.6 acre) to 130 ha. (321.2 acres). Total area of the islands is 6.23 km² (2.4 sq mi) [4] Map p.2
The islands (listed southwest to northeast) include four in the Tuticorin group:Vaan, 16.00 ha [5] 8.83639° N 78.21047° EKoswari, 19.50 ha 8.86879° N 78.22506° EVilanguchalli, 0.95 ha 8.93815° N 78.26969° E, now 1 m below mean low tide level as a result of excessive coral mining.Kariyachalli, 16 .46 ha 8.95409° N 78.25235° E;
three in the Vembar group:Uppu Thanni, 22.94 ha, elevation 4m 9.08921° N 78.49148° EPuluvini Challi, 6.12 ha, elevation 5.5m 9.10320° N 78.53688° ENalla Thanni, 101.00 ha, elevation 11.9m (recently populated) 9.10667° N 78.57885° E;
seven in the Keelakarai group:Anaipar, 11.00 ha, elevation 2.1m 9.15294° N 78.69481° EVali Munai, 6.72 ha, elevation 1.2m 9.15354° N 78.73052° EPoovarasan Patti, 0.50 ha, elevation 1.2m 9.15413° N 78.76695° EAppa, 28.63 ha, elevation 6.4m 9.16582° N 78.82596° ETalairi, 75.15 ha, elevation 2.7m 9.18133° N 78.90673° EValai 10.10 ha, elevation 3.0m 9.18421° N 78.93866° EMulli, 10.20 ha, elevation 1.2m 9.18641° N 78.96810° E;
Topographic Map (NE)
Topographic Map (SW)
and seven in the Mandapam group:Musal, 124.00 ha, elevation .9m 9.19912° N 79.07530° E (recently populated)Manoli, 25.90 ha 9.21564° N 79.12834° EManoli-Putti 2.34 ha 9.21581° N 79.12800° EPoomarichan 16.58 ha 9.24538° N 79.17993° EPullivasal, 29.95 ha 9.23699° N 79.19100° EKurusadai, 65.80 ha 9.24690° N 79.20945° E was recently populated. [6] Its surrounding shallow waters harbour three species of seagrass that are found nowhere else in India. Representatives of every animal phylum known (except amphibians) are found on this island.[7]Shingle, 12.69 ha, elevation .6m 9.24174° N 79.23563° E.
Tidal amplitude in the area is about .5m. [5]
There were two more islands named Pandayan and Punnaiyadi at 8.78075° N 78.19536° E that were destroyed for construction of the new Tuticorn Port facilities.
[edit] Flora and fauna
Mangroves
Green turtle
Clownfish
The park includes estuaries, mudflats, beachs and forests of the near shore environment. It also includes marine components such as coral reefs, seaweed communities, sea grasses, salt marshes and mangroves. Seaweed photo gallery
Flora- Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands. They consist of species belonging to the Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops and Lumnitzera genus.[8] Mangroves: photo gallery. Introduced Prosopis genus of tree species are dominant on land in all the islands. Pemphis acidula (Lythraceae family of flowering herb) is the only endemic plant species.[9] 147 species of sea grass in the highly diverse communities of this area is the highest number of species recorded in India. This vegetation provides important feeding grounds for the vulnerable marine mammal Dugong,[6] endangered Green turtles and Olive Ridley turtles.[10] Sea grasses: photo gallery
Fauna
Vertebrates
Dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal is the flagship mammal of the park. It is an important habitat for the Cetaceans: Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, finless porpoise, spinner dolphin and common dolphin.[11]
510 (23%) of the 2,200 fin fish species in Indian waters are found in the Gulf, making it the most highly diverse fish habitat in India. Coral associated ornamental fishes belonging to the family Chaetodontidae, (butterfly fish); Parrotfish; Amphiprion spp (clown fish), Holocentrus spp ([[squirrel fish), Scarus spp (parrot fish), Lutjanus spp (snappers) and Abudefduf saxatilis (sergeant Major) are abundant.[1]
A unique endemic species of Balanoglossus - Ptychodera fluva, a living fossil that links invertebrates and vertebrates, has been recorded only at Kurusadai.[7]
Invertebrates
4 species each of shrimp and lobster, 106 species of crab, 17 species of sea cucumber, and 466 species of mollusc including 271 gastropods, 174 bivalves, 5 polyplacophorans, 16 cephalopods and 5 scaphopods [12], 108 species of sponge, and 100 species of echinoderm occur in the Gulf.[13]
The coral fauna includes 106 species from 30 genus of hermatypes and 11 species from 10 genus of ahermatypes, including 13 new species, giving a total of 117 species from 14 families and 40 genus. The reefs in this area are narrow fringing reefs located 150 to 300 m. from the shore of the islands and patch reefs rising up from depths of 2 to 9 m. and extending up to 2 km. long and 50 m. wide. Large areas of these reefs are in generally poor condition due to destructive human activities of the 150,000 persons living along the coast. Nutrient and other pollution loads are high due to agriculture, deforestation, industry, urbanization and septic pollution. It appears that the Coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park seem to be healthy and in good condition, despite high rates of sedimentation and other threats.[14] However, live coral cover is only about 35%. Various algae cover much of the dead coral.[15]
Stony coral species belonging to Poritidae and Faviidae sub orders constitute the dominant reef builders here. Coral reefs near some of the islands have been heavily damaged by exploitation as raw materials for industrial ventures such as cement industries, brick manufacture, masonry work and lime kilns. Though legal quarrying of the reefs is now stopped, up to 250 m3/day of reef were destroyed for many years. [8]
Corals images gallery: #1, #2.
[edit] Habitation
Boats at Mandapam that fish in GOMMNP
The islands are uninhabited except for Krusadai, Musal and Nallathanni islands where antipoaching sheds are operating.[16] Along the coast near the park there are about 125 villages which support about 100,000 people who are mainly Marakeyars, a local Community principally engaged in fishing.[8], [4]
[edit] Visitor Information
Glass bottomed boats available at Mandapam cater to tourists visiting the area. Access to the Islands is prohibited.
The nearest railway stations are at Mandapam and Tuticorin.
Contact: S. Shenbagamoorthy, the Wildlife Warden, Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, Tamil Nadu Dept of Environment and Forests, Ramanathapuram, Ramanathapuram Dt., Tamil Nadu. Phone:04567-230079 [8]
Dr.V.K. Melkani, I.F.S. is Chief Conservator of Forests and Director of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust (GOMBRT), 366, Vandikara Street, Solaikili Towers, Ramanathapuram 623 501, Tamil Nadu. Phone: 04567-226 335, Fax: 04567 -229 228, E-mail: gombrt_rnd@yahoo.co.in
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
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?Top SlipIndira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuaryand National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuaryand National Park
Coordinates: 10°25′01″N 77°03′24″E / 10.417, 77.0567
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area• Elevation
958 km² (370 sq mi)• 2,513 m (8,245 ft)
Nearest city
Pollachi
District(s)
Coimbature
Established
1976
Visitation/year
[1]
Governing body
Ministry of Environment and Forests and Tamil Nadu Department of forests
Website: http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_ignp.html
Coordinates: 10°25′01″N 77°03′24″E / 10.417, 77.0567
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park (IGWLS&NP) is a protected area named after Prime Minister Indira Gandhi who visited here on October 7, 1961. It is often called Topslip, a village in the northeast corner of the park which is the main visitor center. This name is derived from the local 19th century practice of sliding Teak timber logs down from the hills. It is located in the Anaimalai Hills of Pollachi, Valparai and Udumalpet taluks of Coimbatore District, Tamilnadu state, South India. The 108 km² National Park is the core area of the 958 km² Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, formerly called Anaimalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Park and the Sanctuary are the core of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and is under consideration by UNESCO as as part of The Western Ghats World Heritage site[2]. The Sanctuary and the Palni Hills in Dindigul District form the Anaimalai Conservation Area[3].
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Tribal Communities
3 Flora and Fauna
4 Visitor Information
5 References
//
[edit] Geography
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
The sanctuary has six administrative ranges, Pollachi: Range Head Quarters at Anaimalai Farm: 109.72 km², Vaalpaarai: Water Falls: 171.50 km², Ulandy: Top Slip: 75.93 km², Amaravathi: Amaravathi Nagar: 172.50 km², Udumalpet: 290.18 km². IGWLS is adjacent to Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary to the west.
Altitude ranges between 340m to 2513 m above sea level. There are 12 major peaks in this area, including:
Local name
Height
English name
Location
Akkamalai
2,483 metres (8,146 ft)
Mean annual rainfall is between 500mm in the south western fringes to 5000mm on the north east.
[edit] Tribal Communities
The IGWS has significant anthropological diversity with more than 4600 Adivasi people from six tribes of indigenous people living in 34 settlements. The tribes are the Kadars, Malasars, Malaimalasars, Pulaiyars, Muduvars and the Eravalars.[4], [5].
[edit] Flora and Fauna
The park is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna typical of the South Western Ghats. There are over 2000 species plants of which about 400 species are of prime medicinal value.
Mammals in the Park include tiger, leopard, sloth bear, dhole or the Asiatic wild dog, golden jackal, leopard cat, jungle cat, rusty-spotted cat, elephant, gaur, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, mouse deer, wild pig, nilgiri langur, common langur, bonnet macaque, lion-tailed macaque, common palm civet, Small Indian Civet, Common Mongoose, Striped-necked Mongoose, Ruddy Mongoose, Smooth Indian Otter, Slender Loris, Indian Giant Squirrel, Spiny Dormouse, Porcupine, Indian Pangolin, Giant Flying Squirrel and Three-striped Palm Squirrel.
IGWS is a Project Elephant sanctuary.
The Steering Committee of Project Tiger granted approval in principle to inclusion of Indira Gandhi WLS and NP and nine additional protected areas under Project Tiger.[6]
Over 250 species of birds have been identified in the Park . Some of the most important groups include, cormorants, ducks, teal, darter, partridge, quail, jungle fowl, spur fowl, pea fowl, parakeets, hornbills, barbets, drongos, orioles, shrikes, warblers, flycatchers, woodpeckers, chloropsis, trogons, kingfishers, storks, egrets, fish eagle, hawk eagles, harriers, falcons, kites, owls and nightjars.
It is home to 15 of 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats including: Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Nilgiri Pipit, Nilgiri Flycatcher, Malabar Grey Hornbill, Rufous Babbler, Crimson-backed Sunbird, White-bellied Treepie, Grey-breasted Laughingthrush, White-bellied Blue Flycatcher, White-bellied Shortwing, Malabar Parakeet, Black-and-orange Flycatcher, Grey-headed Bulbul, Broad-tailed Grassbird and Wynaad Laughingthrush there are unconfirmed reports of the 16th, the Nilgiri Laughingthrush found in the upper regions of the Anamalais around the estates of Vaalpaarai. If true, the sanctuary will be the first to be home to all the endemic species of Western Ghats birds.
Reptiles include toads, leaping frogs, torrent frogs, tree frogs, pythons, cobras, kraits, vipers, grass snakes, forest cane turtles, travancore tortoises, flapshells, star tortoises, flying lizards, chameleons and forest calotes.
315 species of butterflies belonging to five families have been identified in the Anaimalais. 44 are endemic to the Western Ghats. [7]
[edit] Visitor Information
The IGWLS is managed by the Wildlife Warden (Wildlife Warden Office, 178 Meenkarai Road, Pollachi, Ph: 04259-225356) and falls within the administrative control of the Coimbatore Forest Circle headed by the Conservator of Forests, Coimbatore.
Travel by road from Coimbatore to Pollachi (40 km) to the Wildlife Warden's Office for visitor permit and then by road to Top Slip (35 km), or to Udumalpet (40 km - Amaravathi and Udumalpet range), or to Vaalparai (65 km - Vaalparai and Manamboly range)
The ideal months to visit the Park are May to January. Entry time is between 6 am and 6 pm. The Park has a large tourist complex at Top Slip that houses many cottages, rooms, and dormitories for visitors. Visitors can get around the park by trekking and a safari van.[8] [9].
Mudumalai National Park
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Mudumalai National Park
Mudumalai NP
Mudumalai NP (Tamil Nadu)
IUCN Category IV (Habitat/Species Management Area)
Location
Nilgiri, India
Nearest city
Coimbatore
Coordinates
11°30′0″N 76°30′0″E / 11.5, 76.5
Area
321 km²
Established
1940
The Mudumalai sanctuary lies on the northwestern side of the Nilgiri Hills (Blue Mountains), in Nilgiri District, about 80 km north-west of Coimbatore in the westernmost part of Tamil Nadu, on the interstate boundaries with Karnataka and Kerala states in South India.
Contents
[hide]
1 Conservation history
2 Flora and fauna
3 Visitor facilities
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
//
[edit] Conservation history
The park was created in 1940 to become the first wildlife sanctuary in southern India. Originally 60 square kilometres, the sanctuary was enlarged to 295 km² in 1956 and subsequently to its present size of 321 km². The sanctuary is contiguous with Bandipur National Park (874 km²), Wynad Wildlife Sanctuary (344 km²), Sigur and Singara reserve forests. The park is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²), including all of Mudumalai National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.[1]
[edit] Flora and fauna
There are three main types of forest: tropical moist deciduous, tropical dry deciduous and southern tropical thorn. In certain places mixed vegetation types are present. Tropical moist deciduous forest occurs in the western Benne Block, where rainfall is higher than in the other blocks.
Primates found include the Gray langur (Semnopithecus priam) and the Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata). The Tiger (Panthera tigris) (E) is widespread, whereas the Leopard (P. pardus) (T) is most often seen in the Kargudi area. Other carnivores include the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) (V), the Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena), the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) and the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) (I). The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) (E) population totals several hundred animals. Ungulates include the Gaur (Bos gaurus) (V), the Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolor), the Chital (Axis axis), Indian Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), the Indian Spotted Chevrotain (Moschiola meminna), and the Wild Boar (Sus scrofa). Rodents include the Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica maxima) and the Red Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista).
Bird life is rich. Regional endemics include Malabar trogon Harpactes fasciatus and Malabar grey hornbill Tockus griseus. Predatory birds include crested hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus and crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela. It also holds the isolated southern population of the Striped Tit-babbler Macronous gularis.[2] Of the reptiles, monitor lizard Varanus bengalensis is the most regularly observed species.
[edit] Visitor facilities
Information board in Ooty-Mysore highway in Mudumalai
Accommodation in Mudumalai includes a forest rest house and guest houses at Masinagudi, and guest houses at Kargudi, Abhayaranyam and Theppakkadu. Accommodation in the forest rest house and guest houses may be reserved by writing to the Wildlife Warden, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, India.
The nearest airport is at Coimbatore (84km) and the closest railhead at Udhagamandalam (64km). However, in terms of travel practicality, the closest railhead is Mysore (90km),which sits on a major broad gauge line and is served by trains from across the country. The park is most conveniently accessible by road from Mysore on the Mysore-Ooty highway.
There is a cottage after crossing Kargudi and Mudumalai check posts on Ooty road. Bookings can be made from www.wildlifesanctuaryindia.com .Jungle home offers clean, comfortable accommodation at reasonable rates. It is located at the crucial elephant habitat zone. Elephants can be spotted very easily in this region. Trekking, Birdwatching and Fishing are conducted.
There are also night safaris on open top jeeps arranged by resorts and guides who are freely accessible in Masinagudi.The night safaris are conducted on the peripheral roads running through the forest and not deep into the forest
Other Places to visit in this region Include1, The Elephant Feeding Camp - A place where you can interact with Elephants and also see how they are fed.2, Museum - Near the Elephant feeding camp there is a museum where dead animals are preserved. These preserved animals ones lived in the Mudumalai Jungle.3, Moyar River - See how the Moyar river runs through the dense forest. Spotting animals while they come to drink water in the river is fun.4, Elephant Safari and Van Safari Conducted by Tamilnadu forest department.5, Kallatty falls - Located 30Km from Mudumalai forest department . A beautiful falls with breathtaking view.6, Pykara Lake - Located 40 Km from Mudumalai Safari office . It is a clean and scenic lake in between the hills. It is an isolated lake free from pollution and maddening crowed . Boating is conducted here . It is a place worth visiting when you plan to visit Mudumalai.You will remember this scenic spot throughout your life7, Don't forget to Visit the lost cute Baby Elephant .
Jungle Home Provides Information on more interesting places to visit around Mudumalai and accommodation at Mudumalai .
Mukurthi National Park
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?Mukurthi National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Nilgiri Tahr in Montane grasslands
Mukurthi National Park
Coordinates: 11°16′00″N 76°28.5′00″E / 11.266667, 76.475
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area• Elevation
78.46 km² (30 sq mi)• 2,629 m (8,625 ft)
Climate• PrecipitationTemperature• Summer• Winter
• 6,330 mm (249.2 in)• 35 °C (95 °F)• 0 °C (32 °F)
Nearest city
Ootacamund
District(s)
Nilgiri District
Established
12 December 2001
Keystone species
Nilgiri Tahrthe Tamil Nadu state animal
Governing body
Tamil Nadu Forest Department
Website: www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_muknp.html
Coordinates: 11°16′00″N 76°28.5′00″E / 11.266667, 76.475 Mukurthi National Park is a 78.46 km² protected area located in the south-eastern corner of the Nilgiris Plateau west of Ootacamund hill station in the northwest corner of Tamil Nadu state in the Western Ghats mountain range of South India. The park is a part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India's first International Biosphere Reserve
The Western Ghats, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²), including all of Mukurthi National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.[1]
The park is characterized by Montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with sholas in a high altitude area of high rainfall, subfreezing temperatures and high winds. It is home to an array of endangered wildlife, including Royal Bengal Tiger and Asian Elephant, but its main mammal attraction is the Nilgiri Tahr. The park was previously known as Nilgiri Tahr National Park.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
3 Fauna
4 Flora
5 Management
6 Visitor information
7 Notes
8 See also
//
[edit] History
Native hill tribe communities including the Toda people have harvested firewood from the sholas and grazed their animals including the Hill Buffalo for centuries. Indiscriminate felling of the sholas started with the establishment of British settlements in Ootacamund, Coonoor and Wellington in the early 1800s. Beginning in 1841 authorities issued contracts to bidders to fell wood from specific sholas in a 'timber conservancy program. In 1868 James Breeds, Commissioner of the Hills, wrote: "...unless conservancy is taken in hand and organized under some efficient system under the control of an experienced officer, the destruction of the sholas is but a question of time." [2]
Bangitipal Rest House and surroundings
Bangitappal (Cannabis tableland), at the southwest end of the park at the confluence of two streams at the head of the Sispara Pass, used to be a halting place on the old Sispara ghat road from Kozhikode to Ooty, constructed in 1832. This pass provided a short land route for postal runners from Ooty to the West Coast in the 19th century and was used for smuggling of cannabis, tobacco and later salt. [3] A forest rest house and a trekkers shed built there in 1930 are now used by park staff and visiting researchers.
Between 1840 and 1856 plantations of several non-native tree species were introduced to the area to satisfy the fuel-wood demand. These included 4 Wattle species(Black Wattle, Silver Wattle, Green Wattle and Blackwood), Eucalyptus, Cyprus, Indian Long leaf Pine and Thorny Gorse. Eucalyptus became the preferred plantation tree.
Unlike the others, the wattles spread by root suckers to quickly cover large areas of native grasslands, including the Mukurthi Hills, and was declared a pest "useful for covering wastelands."[4]. Some Black Wattle plantations were maintained for the leather industry, as their bark yielded tannin.
In 1882 Inspector General of Forests, Dietrich Brandis "recommended bringing the present 1200 acres of plantation up to 5000 acres to create enormous forest blocks "...which would make any remaining sholas redundant forest resources."[5]
In 1920 it was suggested that 10–15 acre plots in the Kundah Hills including the present park area, "be planted up each year in places where sholas have almost or quite disappeared, the most suitable species probably being Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle)" [6] , thus replacing highly diverse endemic and stable ecosystems with an exotic monoculture supporting little animal diversity.
Mukurthi was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1986 and a National Park in 2001, in order to protect the Nilgiri Tahr. [7] pages=45-49
[edit] Geography
Mukurthi National ParkTopographic map 1:250,000
Mukurthi National ParkBounderies and features map
Mukurthi National Park has an elongated crescent shape facing to the west between 11°10' to 11°22' N and 76°22' to 76°35' E.. It is bordered on the west by Nilambur South Forest Division in Kerala, to the northwest by Gudalur Forest Division, to the northeast, east and southeast by South Forest Division and to the south by Mannarghat Forest Division, Kerala. At its southwest tip the peaks of this park straddle the northeast corner of Silent Valley National Park of Kerala.[8]
On the Nilgiri Plateau, the Kundah range of the Nilgiri hills is a ridge on the south-western side of Mukurthi National Park bordering Kerala. The Tamil Nadu/Kerala border here is 39 km long. The park generally slopes towards the east and south receiving water from the Billithadahalla, Pykara and Kundah rivers, and the Upper Bhavani and Mukurthi reservoirs which flow through the park. Also several perennial streams originate in the park, most of which drain into the Bhavani Puzha.[9]
Mukurthi Peak elevation: 2554 m.
Park elevation varies from 1,500 m (4,921 ft) to 2,629 m (8,625 ft), with Kollaribetta 2,629 m (8,625 ft), Mukurthi 2,554 m (8,379 ft), and Nilgiri 2,476 m (8,123 ft) being the highest peaks. With elevations greater than the general level of the plateau, the range possesses some peaks close to the height of Doddabetta, just east of Ooty.
Avalanche hill of this range has twin-peaks of the Kudikkadu (height: 2,590 metres (8,497 ft)) and the Kolaribetta. Derbetta (or Bear Hill) (height: 2,531 metres (8,304 ft)) and Kolibetta (height: 2,494 metres (8,182 ft)), south of the Ouchterlony valley, are a continuation of the Kundah range.
Pichalbetta (height: 2,544 metres (8,346 ft)), Nilgiri Peak and Mukurthi Peak are the important heights of this area. These 3 hills of the Wayanad district are generally low in relation to other heights of the district; but are distinguished in relation to the generally uniform level of this area. [10]
Important peaks in the southwest Sispara/Bangitipal part of the park are Sispara (height: 2,206 metres (7,238 ft)) Anginda(height: 2,383 metres (7,818 ft)), Nadugani (height: 0 metres (0 ft)) and Gulkal (height: 2,468 metres (8,097 ft)).
The park has a harsh environment with annual rainfall varying from 2010 mm to 6330 mm (79–249 inches), night temperature usually below freezing in the winter and wind speeds ranging up to 120 km/h (75 mph). [7]page 13
[edit] Fauna
Black-winged Kite
Indian Red Admiral
Several threatened mammal species live here including Nilgiri Tahr, Indian elephant, Bengal Tiger, Nilgiri Marten, Nilgiri langur and Bonhote's Mouse. Mukurthi is near the northern end of the range of the Nilgiri Tahr. A 3 day census in March 2007 estimated 200 Tahrs in the park including 60 young ones sighted.[11]There are also Leopard, Bonnet macaque, Sambar deer, Barking deer, Mouse Deer, Otter, Jungle cat, Small Indian Civet, Wild dog, Jackal, Black-naped Hare, Common Rat, Shrew, Malabar Spiny Dormouse and Soft-furred Rat.
Avifauna consists mostly of hill birds including the threatened Laughingthrush, Whistling Thrush, Woodcock, Wood Pigeon, Black-and-orange Flycatcher, Nilgiri Flycatcher, Grey Headed Flycatcher Black Bulbul, White-eye, Nilgiri Pipit. The predatory Black-winged Kite, Kestrel and Black Eagle may be seen in the grasslands.
The area is home to many species of reptiles such as the Geckos Dwarf Gecko spp. and Nilgiri Salea Salea horsfieldii, the snakes Horseshoe Pit Viper, Olivaceaous Keelback, Oligodon taeniolatus, Oligodon venustus, Bronze-headed Vine Snake and several Shieldtails of which Perrotet's Shieldtail is most common. Some amphibians here are the Common Indian Toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), Bufo beddomii, Bufo microtympanum and many species of Tree Frogs including Micrixalus opisthorhodus and Rana limnocharis.[7]
Butterflies with Himalayan affinity like the Blue Admiral, Indian Red Admiral, Indian Fritillary, Indian Cabbage white and Hedge blues are seen here. Some streams had been stocked with exotic Rainbow Trout in the past.[12]
[edit] Flora
The area is home to numerous endemic plants particularly of the scapigerous annual Impatiens plants. Alchemilla indica and Hedyotis verticillaris are found only within or on the fringes of this park.
Rhododendron tree in shola
Rhododendrons, Rhododendron arboreum the national flower of Nepal or Rhododendron nilagiricum [13], are seen throughout the grasslands and very large specimens are conspicuous around many sholas. Other common shola trees and shrubs among the 58 species found here include: Syzigium calophyllifolium, Daphiphyllum neilgherrense, Cinnamomum wightii, Vaccinium leschenaulti, Mahonia leschenaulti, Litsea sp., Lasianthes sp., Psychotria sp. and Michelia nilagirica.
Wild Yellow Raspberries grow on the edge of sholas and in disturbed soil along trails and roads
The Edges of most sholas are lined with the shrubs: Gaultheria fragrantissima, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, rubus sp., Bergeris tinctoria, Eurya nitida, Strobilanthes sp., and Helichrysum sp.
The Orchids Eria abliflora, Oberonia santapaui, Aerides ringens, Aerides crispa and Coelogyne odoratissima are found on the high west edge of the park. Among the grasslands are a plethora of Brachycorithis iantha, Satyrium nepalense, Habenaria cephalotes, Seidenfia densiflora, Spiranthes sinensis and Liparis atropurpurea.
The natural habitats of the park have been much disturbed by previously easy motor vehicle access through four different entry points and[14] extensive commercial planting and natural spreading of non-native eucalyptus and wattle (Acacia dealbata, Acacia mearnsii and other species). In addition there is one large, and several smaller hydro-electric impoundments in the area.[15]
Only 20% of the park area has more than a 50% chance of being used by Tahr. If old commercial forests are removed and restored to their original grassland habitat, usable Tahr habitat would increase to 60%.[16]
[edit] Management
Mukurthi National Park is Managed by the Tamil Nadu Department of Forestry with the main objective to conserve the endangered shola-grassland ecosystem and its endemic flora and fauna. The department operates an effective year round anti-poaching program with gun and radio equipped foot patrols operating from anti-poaching camps at Bangitappal, Nadugani, Western Catchment and Mukurthi Fishing Hut.
Grassland restoration from old Wattle forest
Prevention and control of destructive Wildfire is achieved through creation of artificial firebreaks in the form of hand dug fire lines along ridges and cleared trek paths. Local fire watchers are employed for early detection and control during the dangerous December to April fire season. Invasive imported plant species, especially Wattle, Scotch broom and Gorse are being controlled and eliminated from the park through a phased long term program focused on restoration of the originial biota.
Tourism is not a management objective, but the Forest Department does periotically conduct nature awareness and conservation programs for the public and some special interest groups through controlled visits to the Western Catchment and Avalanche areas of the park.
The Forest Department also seeks to identify and acquire contiguous undisturbed crucial habitat areas for future inclusion in the park.[7] pages 48 50
[edit] Visitor information
Management signat Upper Bhavani entrance
Casual tourism and commercial tour operation is not permitted and tourist facilities are not available in the park. Special interest groups are sometimes permitted for supervised educational programs, trekking and camping. There are Forest Rest Houses at Bangitapal, Avalanche, Pykara and some unfurnished trekking sheds.
A mostly down hill 3, 4 or 5 day trek through Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks starts by driving 75 km from Udhagamandalam (Ooty) in 4 hrs and 1 km walk to overnight at Bangitapal. Walk 24 km through Mukurthi Park in 9 hrs to overnight at Walakkad, or overnight half way at the new trekkers bungalow at Sispara peak then continue 12 km steep downhill the next day to Walakkad. Walk 18 km in 7 hrs to overnight at Poochipara. Walk 8 km in 3 hrs to Sairandhiri in Silent Valley, then take a park van out or overnight at Sairandhri and trek 23 km to Mukkali village A forest guide-cum-cook accompanies park visitors during all treks.[17] [18] In some cases the guide may instruct visitors to bend down to drink straight from a stream like a deer and prohibit bathing in a stream so the silt at the bottom is not disturbed and because human body odour might affect the animals.[19]
Application for trekking permits should be made well in advance with: Wildlife Warden - The Nilgiris, Mount Stewart Hill, Udhagamandalam – 643 001 Tamil Nadu, India; Phone: 0423- 2444098; Fax: 0423-2450400; Email: wlwnlg@tn.nic.in[20]
The nearest airport is Coimbatore – 140 km. The nearest Railway station is Udhagamandalam – 45 km. The best seasons are February to May and September to November.[21]
Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
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Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park (Planned)
Palani Hills WS&NP
Palani Hills WS&NP (Tamil Nadu)
Location
Dindigul
Nearest city
Kodaikanal
Coordinates
10°17′30″N 77°31′0″E / 10.29167, 77.51667
Area
736.87 km² (PRO)
Governing body
Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests
The Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is a proposed Protected area in Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu State South India. The Park will be an upgrade and expansion of the Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary being established in 2008. Area is 736.87 km² (PRO) .[1] The park includes about 36% of the 2,068 km² in the Palani Hills.[2][3] The park is located between Latitude 10°7' - 10°28' N and Longitude 77°16' - 77°46' E. Central location 10°17.5′N, 77°31′E is .7 km west of the Aeon centre of Cosmology[4] and 7.4 km N X NE of Kodaikanal.
Contents
[hide]
1 Status
2 Geography
3 Geology
4 Weather
5 Tribes
6 Ecoregions
7 Flora and Fauna
8 Threat aversion
9 See also
10 Notes
//
[edit] Status
In the early 1990s, the Tamil Nadu Forest Department submitted a proposal to the State government to protect much of the Palani Hills by declaring the area a wildlife sanctuary or a national park.[5] The Sanctuary has been under consideration of the Government of India in consultation with the Government of Tamilnadu since 1999.[6] The actual park boundaries have not been finalized.
The Palani Hills.
The increasingly important economic role of Eco-tourism, including: trekking, hiking, camping, mountaineering, rock climbing and bird watching may help local vested interests to welcome this new Protected area. It remains to be seen whether the Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park will stimulate or stifle commercial development and tourism. The decision to finally establish the Park must balance short term financial benefits of the status quo versus long term stability of the natural and human community.
[edit] Geography
Palani Hills, Topographic overview, 1;250,000.
The western extremity of the Park is contiguous with Manjampatti Valley in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park and with The Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. The Kurinjimala Sanctuary in Kerala borders the southwestern corner of the Park.[7] These Wildlife Sanctuaries are adjacent to the recently established Eravikulam National Park.
The Park area includes only reserve forest land, including Palni Hills Northern Slope East, Kallar, Palni Hills Southern Slope East, Upper Palni Shola, Allinagaram, and Palni Hills Northern Slope West Reserve Forests in the Dindigul[8] and Kodaikanal Forest Divisions.[9]
These forests are already among the protected areas of Tamil Nadu. Their upgrade to Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park will increase their IUCN status from level VI to II and improve habitat and wildlife conservation.
[edit] Geology
Skamba Falls near:10°17.5234′N, 77°31.4093′E
The Palani Hills are formed of pre-Cambrian gneisses, charnockites and schists; they are among the oldest mountain ranges in India.[10] The Park is an eastward extension of the Western Ghats hills formed by separation of the India-Madagascar-Seychelles blocks of East Gondwana in the Early Cretaceous period about 120 million years ago.
It is surrounded to the north, east and south by the Deccan Plateau formed later in the massive Deccan Traps eruption 65 million years ago.[11]
The Palani hills are most accentuated towards the west, ranging from 1,800 m to 2,553 m (5,906 ft - 8,376 ft). Prominent peaks are: Vandaravu 2,553 m (8,376 ft), Vembadi Shola 2,505 m (8,219 ft), Gundar 2,461 m (8,219 ft), Karunmakadu 2,451 m (8,041 ft), Sandana Parai 2,404 m (7,887 ft) Venkombu 2,327 m (7,635 ft), Tina Vardi 2,270 m (7,448 ft), Perumalai 2,236 m (7,336 ft) and Velori Malai 2,229 m (7,313 ft), The hill station of Kodaikanal stands in a 2,195 m (7,202 ft) high basin at the southern edge of the central part. The eastern end of the park is made of hills 1000-1500 m (3,281 ft - 4,921 ft) high.[12]
The Tamil Nadu Department of Geology and Mining has completed detailed Geo-Technical Studies of the Palni Hills determining moderate to high landslide danger in much of the area.[13]
There are many waterfalls throughout the Park which are popular tourist attractions. Some of the prominent falls associated with the park are: Anju Veedu (27 km from Kodaikanal), Bamen, Bear Shola (2 km from Kodaikanal), Fairy (5 km from Kodaikanal), Glen, Neptune rapids, Pambar (also called Vatakanal)(4 km from Kodaikanal), Silver Cascade (55 m (180 ft) high, 8 km from Kodaikanal), Skamba (8 km from Kodaikanal), Snake and Thalaiyar Falls.
[edit] Weather
Temperature varies from moderate to quite cool - during March to May) the temperature range is between 11°C - 20°C. The temperature can rise to a high of 35°C. During Dec-Feb it is between 8.3°C - 17.3°C. In January, night temperatures sometimes drop to freezing, and thin ice is seen on the lake edges.
The average annual rainfall is 1,650 mm, mostly during the north-east monsoon from June to September.[14] [15]
[edit] Tribes
Paliyan woman & children.
Nomadic Paliyan tribes people have been seen living in some of the several caves in Manjampatti Valley. Paliyan people can be seen near Kukal Cave. The Tamil speaking Pulayan are referred as the MalaPulayans, a group categorized as scheduled caste by State government of Tamil Nadu. Their traditional livelihood is foraging yams and small gaming in the nearby forest areas combined with cultivation of several species of minor millets in small plots located near their hamlets to meet their subsistence requirements.
They live in small hamlets in huts and government constructed colonies. The sedentary life started with the construction of group houses by the government in the early sixties. The community is vertically divided into two sub divisions called Koora and Kanni, further subdivided into 47 sub sects. Each sub sect is called Kootams, which regulates certain social events. Each kootam has it own deity, which is common to the entire group and once yearly the members of the same kootam assemble to worship the deity. [16]
Many native tribals in the Palani Hills have partially assimilated modern culture but are marginalized on the fringes of society. Their social, economic and physical survival has become a difficult challenge for them and several public and private agencies. Their ancient culture in this area is well documented [17], [18].
Relics and artifacts of the Paliyan tribes people can be seen in the Shenbaganur Museum.[19]
[edit] Ecoregions
Palni Hills Vegetation MapFull Map with Legend:[20]
There is a wide diversity of Endemic species in the Park's diverse Ecoregions. The lower elevations, 250 m - 1000 m, are part of the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion. Above 1000 m, the forests transition to evergreen South Western Ghats montane rain forests. In the highest portions of the park, above 2,000 m, the forests give way to shola - grassland mosaic, made of frost-tolerant montane grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted shola forests in the valleys.
The Palni hills are the easternmost part of the Western Ghats of India, which is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots of the world. Some of the very rare and endangered plants and animals of India are found here. including intact relics of primary indigenous vegetation and a large number of non-native plants.[21]
[edit] Flora and Fauna
Nilgiri Tahr
Grizzled Giant Squirrel
Indian Elephant
Mammals: Wild Boars are common in areas away from human habitation and cultivation.Threatened species in the park area include: Indian Elephant, Gaur (Wild Ox), Nilgiri Tahr and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.
Bengal Tiger populations in the adjacent Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Project Tiger Kalakad - Mundanthurai Reserve[22] in the Agasthyamalai hills could expand back into this area when it is better protected.
Plants: The comprehensive source on this subject is currently in print: "The Flora of the Palni Hills, South India" , Tiruchirapalli, , 3 vols., xcvi, 1880 p., figs., maps, $193 (set). ISBN 81-900539-3-0. Contents:[23]
Volume I ISBN 8190053949: Polypetalae: Dedication. Preface. Novelties in this Flora. Precursory or related publications. References. Introduction. I. The Palni hills: 1. Location and physical features. 2. Kodaikanal: taluk and town. 3. Rivers. 4. Roads. 5. Table 2: Gazetteer of localities. 6. Climatic conditions at Kodaikanal. 7. Geology and soils. 8. History. 9. The vegetation: A. Native; B. Alien. 10. References. II. Plant explorations on the Palnis: 1. Past explorations: 1. The Bournes. 2. The Fysons. 3. The Shembaganur team. 4. Natural History Centre at Shembaganur (SHC). 5. Recent explorations. 6. References. 2. Present exploration: 1. Background and scope. 2. Field trip report. 3. Phytogeographical findings. 4. Ethnobotany. 5. Nature conservation. 3. The present Flora: Format and conventions. Acknowledgments. Family sequence. Key to families. Dicotyledones: I. Polypetalae: 1. Ranunculaceae. 2. Alangiaceae.
Volume II ISBN 8190053957: Gamopetalae: 1. Caprifoliaceae. 2. Labiatae. III. Monochlamvdeae: 1. Plantaginaceae. 2. Salicaceae.
Volume III ISBN 8190053965: Monocotyledones: 1. Orchidaceae. 2. Gramineae. II. Gymnospermae: 1. Gnetaceae. 2. Cycadaceae.
Kurinji flowers (Strobilanthes kunthiana) which blossom in spectacular fields of violet only once in 12 years are threatened. [24].
[edit] Threat aversion
There is decreasing biodiversity, deforestation, grasslands destruction, monoculture tree plantations, and invasive exotic plant species in the Park. There is sewage pollution, solid waste pollution, Mercury contamination[25], sound pollution, visual pollution, uncontrolled tourism, overdevelopment and lake eutrophication in and near Kodaikanal town. The Government of Tamil Nadu and several local NGO conservation groups are actively working to reduce some of these threats:
The Government of Tamilnadu completed establishment of a litter free zone and awareness campaign in Kodaikanal in 2000 at a cost of Rs 1. lakh.[26]
The Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board, the Public Works Department and the local bodies are executing Bioremediation of Kodaikanal Lake under the National Lake Conservation Programme, with an expenditure of Rs.33.90 lakhs incurred till 2007.[27]
The Tamil Nadu Forest Dept. is implementing forest maintenance and restoration works over a period of 5 years from 2006-2007. Government of Tamil Nadu has sanctioned a sum of Rs.30.00 crores for the following components:
Conservation and eco-restoration of degraded forests in Nilgiris and Palani Hills. During 2007-2008, it is proposed to take up degraded sholas over an extent of 300 ha. and to carry out other maintenance and improvement works at a cost of Rs. 590.75 lakhs.
Improvement of roads in the forest areas of Tamil Nadu.
Bio-diversity conservation.
Maintenance and special repairs to Forest Department buildings.
Raising shola seedlings for afforestation.
A sum of Rs.1327.50 lakhs has been released for this purpose during 2006-2007.[28]
The Palani Hills Conservation Council (PHCC) was formed by concerned residents in 1985 One of its first goals was to support and push for the creation of a national park or a wildlife sanctuary in the Palni Hills. Zafar Futehally and M.S. Viraraghavan were its leaders. The PHCC made a clear connection between natural forests and water security and coined the phrase: "The health of the hills is the wealth of the plains." The PHCC generated a National Park proposal used by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department. One of the council's major contributions has been the creation of nurseries for indigenous trees. Today, thanks to its efforts, young shola trees thrive at Kodai institutions and in private gardens. The organisation sought to restrict unsustainable building development in the 1990s. The PHCC has been active in the case against mercury contamination of the once beautiful Pambar Shola.[29], [30]
The Vattakanal Conservation Trust promotes the conservation of Palni Hills' native plants and habitats by raising plant nurseries, establishing conservation gardens, working with the Forest Department to restore habitats and acquiring properties to ensure survival of specific species and ecosystems[31]
Kodaikanal International School supports and leads environmental initiatives in the surrounding area. It offers an International Baccalaureate Program course on Environmental Systems.[32].
The Save Kurinji Campaign Council organises campaigns and programmes for conservation of the Kurinji plant and its habit.[33].
The Tamil Nadu Green Movement works on Nature Education, Conservation awareness, Judicial intervention, media awareness and works with other NGOs in the Western Ghats. [34][35].
Elephant Valley at Vilpatti, 8 km NW of Kodaikanal, is a 100 acre private nature reserve and organic farm welcoming eco-tourists. They promote the conservation of traditional varieties of fruits, vegetables and cereals, including vegetables of all colours, shapes and sizes and orchards of lime, orange, avocados, guavas and amla intercropped with coffee, pepper, vanilla, cinnamon, nutmeg, mangoes, jack fruit, pomegranate, guavas and bananas.[36]
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?Guindy National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Blackbuck, Guindy's flagship species
Guindy National Park
Coordinates: 13°00′09″N 80°13′51″E / 13.00259, 80.23079
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area• Elevation
2.70 km² (1 sq mi)• 6 m (20 ft)
Climate• PrecipitationTemperature• Summer• Winter
• 1,200 mm (47.2 in)• 38 °C (100 °F)• 20 °C (68 °F)
Nearest city
Chennai (Madras)
District(s)
Chennai
Established
1977
Visitation/year
700,000/2006[1]
Governing body
Ministry of Environment and Forests and Tamil Nadu Department of forests
Website: http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_gnp.html
Coordinates: 13°00′09″N 80°13′51″E / 13.00259, 80.23079
Guindy National Park, A 2.82 km² (1 sq mi) Protected area of Tamil Nadu, located in Chennai, South India, is the 8th smallest National Park of India and one of the very few national parks situated inside a city. The park is an extension of the grounds surrounding Raj Bhavan, the official residence of the Governor of Tamilnadu, India. It extends deep inside the govornor's estate, enclosing beautiful forests, scrub lands, lakes and streams. Guindy Park was originally a game reserve, then owned by a British citizen named Gilbert Rodericks and transferred to the Tamil Nadu Forest Department in 1958.
Contents
[hide]
1 Flora and fauna
2 Guindy Snake Park and Children's Park
3 Visitor information
4 References
//
[edit] Flora and fauna
The Guindy National Park, Raj Bhavan and Indian Institute of Technology Madras habitat complex has historically enjoyed a certain degree of protection and has continued to support some of the last remnants of the natural habitats that typify the natural range of plant and animal biodiversity of north-eastern Tamil Nadu.[2]
The park has a dry evergreen scrub and thorn forest with over 350 species of plants including shrubs, climbers, herbs and grasses and over 24 varieties of trees, including the Sugar-apple, Atlantia monophylla, Wood-apple, Neem.
There are over 14 types of mammals including Antelope, 400 Black buck, Chital, 24 Jackal, Pangolin, 2000 Spotted deer, Jungle cat, Large Indian Civet, River otter, Hyena and Fox.
The park has dense forest, grasslands and water-bodies which provide an ideal habitat for over 100 species of birds including partridges, pheasants, parrots, quail, paradise fly-catcher, Black-winged kite, Honey Buzzard, Pariah kite and Eagle. Bird watchers anticipate migratory birds here like teals, garganeys, pochards, Medium egrets, large egrets, night herons, pond herons and open-billed storks every fall season.[3]
There are also many kinds of amphibians and snakes. Some species of tortoise and turtles- especially the endangered Star Turtle, lizards, geckos, chameleons and the common Indian monitor lizard are found here, as well as a large variety of insects including 60 species of spiders and 60 species of butterflies.
[edit] Guindy Snake Park and Children's Park
Guindy Snake Park, formerly the location of Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, is next to the Guindy National Park. There one can see King Cobra, pythons, vipers and other reptiles. 22 acres of GNP has been carved out into a children's park and play area at the northeast corner of the park with a collection of animals and birds. Animals in the children’s park include black buck, sambar, spotted deer, porcupine, hyena, jackal, python, grey pelican, night heron, cormorant, cockatiel, mongoose, bonnet monkey and common langur. The Snake park and Children’s park have separate entrances and independent entry fees. Drinking water, vendors and catering is available.
[edit] Visitor information
There is a new interpretation center about the bio diversity of the park. Entry into this protected reserve is restricted, and visitors can go into the core area only when escorted by a forest ranger from the Forests Department. [4]
Guindy Park is behind the Gandhi Mandapam, Kamaraj Memorial and Rajaji Memorial on Sardar Patel road on the southern outskirts of Chennai. The rear southeast edge of the park ajoins the campus of Indian Institute of Technology. Guindy station (Suburban Track) is 1 km away. Chennai Egmore Railway station is 9 km away. Chennai Central Railway station is 12 km away. Chennai airport is 8 km away.
For more details contact the Wildlife Warden, K.S.S.V.P. Reddy, 50 IV Main Road, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai – 600 020.or The Wildlife Warden, 259, Anna Salai, DMS Compound, IV Floor, Teynampet, Chennai 600 006 Phone : 24321471 or the Children's Park, Guindy. Enquiry Form[5]
Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
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?Gulf of MannarMarine National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal
Gulf of MannarMarine National Park
Coordinates: 09°01′00″N 78°43′00″E / 9.016667, 78.716667
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area
560 km² (216 sq mi)
Climate• Precipitation
• 900 mm (35.4 in)
Nearest city
Madurai 150 km
District(s)
Thoothukudi & Ramanathapuram
Established
1986
ref
[1]
Governing body
Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests
Coordinates: 09°01′00″N 78°43′00″E / 9.016667, 78.716667 The Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park is a protected area of India consisting of 21 small islands (islets) and adjacent coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar in the Indian Ocean. It lies 1 to 10 Km away from the east coast of Tamil Nadu, South India for 160 km between Thoothukudi (Tuticorin) and Dhanushkodi. It is the core area of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve which includes a 10 km buffer zone around the park, including the populated coastal area.[2] The park has a high diversity of plants and animals in its marine, intertidal and near shore habitats. Public access inside the Park is prohibited.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Flora and fauna
3 Habitation
4 Visitor Information
5 Notes
6 References
//
[edit] Geography
The 560 km² (216.2 sq mi) park is part of the 140 km long and 25 km wide Mannar barrier reef. It lies between 8° 47’ to 9° 15’ N latitude and 78° 12’ to 79° 14’ E longitude. The 21 islands vary from 0.25 ha (.6 acre) to 130 ha. (321.2 acres). Total area of the islands is 6.23 km² (2.4 sq mi) [4] Map p.2
The islands (listed southwest to northeast) include four in the Tuticorin group:Vaan, 16.00 ha [5] 8.83639° N 78.21047° EKoswari, 19.50 ha 8.86879° N 78.22506° EVilanguchalli, 0.95 ha 8.93815° N 78.26969° E, now 1 m below mean low tide level as a result of excessive coral mining.Kariyachalli, 16 .46 ha 8.95409° N 78.25235° E;
three in the Vembar group:Uppu Thanni, 22.94 ha, elevation 4m 9.08921° N 78.49148° EPuluvini Challi, 6.12 ha, elevation 5.5m 9.10320° N 78.53688° ENalla Thanni, 101.00 ha, elevation 11.9m (recently populated) 9.10667° N 78.57885° E;
seven in the Keelakarai group:Anaipar, 11.00 ha, elevation 2.1m 9.15294° N 78.69481° EVali Munai, 6.72 ha, elevation 1.2m 9.15354° N 78.73052° EPoovarasan Patti, 0.50 ha, elevation 1.2m 9.15413° N 78.76695° EAppa, 28.63 ha, elevation 6.4m 9.16582° N 78.82596° ETalairi, 75.15 ha, elevation 2.7m 9.18133° N 78.90673° EValai 10.10 ha, elevation 3.0m 9.18421° N 78.93866° EMulli, 10.20 ha, elevation 1.2m 9.18641° N 78.96810° E;
Topographic Map (NE)
Topographic Map (SW)
and seven in the Mandapam group:Musal, 124.00 ha, elevation .9m 9.19912° N 79.07530° E (recently populated)Manoli, 25.90 ha 9.21564° N 79.12834° EManoli-Putti 2.34 ha 9.21581° N 79.12800° EPoomarichan 16.58 ha 9.24538° N 79.17993° EPullivasal, 29.95 ha 9.23699° N 79.19100° EKurusadai, 65.80 ha 9.24690° N 79.20945° E was recently populated. [6] Its surrounding shallow waters harbour three species of seagrass that are found nowhere else in India. Representatives of every animal phylum known (except amphibians) are found on this island.[7]Shingle, 12.69 ha, elevation .6m 9.24174° N 79.23563° E.
Tidal amplitude in the area is about .5m. [5]
There were two more islands named Pandayan and Punnaiyadi at 8.78075° N 78.19536° E that were destroyed for construction of the new Tuticorn Port facilities.
[edit] Flora and fauna
Mangroves
Green turtle
Clownfish
The park includes estuaries, mudflats, beachs and forests of the near shore environment. It also includes marine components such as coral reefs, seaweed communities, sea grasses, salt marshes and mangroves. Seaweed photo gallery
Flora- Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands. They consist of species belonging to the Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops and Lumnitzera genus.[8] Mangroves: photo gallery. Introduced Prosopis genus of tree species are dominant on land in all the islands. Pemphis acidula (Lythraceae family of flowering herb) is the only endemic plant species.[9] 147 species of sea grass in the highly diverse communities of this area is the highest number of species recorded in India. This vegetation provides important feeding grounds for the vulnerable marine mammal Dugong,[6] endangered Green turtles and Olive Ridley turtles.[10] Sea grasses: photo gallery
Fauna
Vertebrates
Dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal is the flagship mammal of the park. It is an important habitat for the Cetaceans: Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, finless porpoise, spinner dolphin and common dolphin.[11]
510 (23%) of the 2,200 fin fish species in Indian waters are found in the Gulf, making it the most highly diverse fish habitat in India. Coral associated ornamental fishes belonging to the family Chaetodontidae, (butterfly fish); Parrotfish; Amphiprion spp (clown fish), Holocentrus spp ([[squirrel fish), Scarus spp (parrot fish), Lutjanus spp (snappers) and Abudefduf saxatilis (sergeant Major) are abundant.[1]
A unique endemic species of Balanoglossus - Ptychodera fluva, a living fossil that links invertebrates and vertebrates, has been recorded only at Kurusadai.[7]
Invertebrates
4 species each of shrimp and lobster, 106 species of crab, 17 species of sea cucumber, and 466 species of mollusc including 271 gastropods, 174 bivalves, 5 polyplacophorans, 16 cephalopods and 5 scaphopods [12], 108 species of sponge, and 100 species of echinoderm occur in the Gulf.[13]
The coral fauna includes 106 species from 30 genus of hermatypes and 11 species from 10 genus of ahermatypes, including 13 new species, giving a total of 117 species from 14 families and 40 genus. The reefs in this area are narrow fringing reefs located 150 to 300 m. from the shore of the islands and patch reefs rising up from depths of 2 to 9 m. and extending up to 2 km. long and 50 m. wide. Large areas of these reefs are in generally poor condition due to destructive human activities of the 150,000 persons living along the coast. Nutrient and other pollution loads are high due to agriculture, deforestation, industry, urbanization and septic pollution. It appears that the Coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park seem to be healthy and in good condition, despite high rates of sedimentation and other threats.[14] However, live coral cover is only about 35%. Various algae cover much of the dead coral.[15]
Stony coral species belonging to Poritidae and Faviidae sub orders constitute the dominant reef builders here. Coral reefs near some of the islands have been heavily damaged by exploitation as raw materials for industrial ventures such as cement industries, brick manufacture, masonry work and lime kilns. Though legal quarrying of the reefs is now stopped, up to 250 m3/day of reef were destroyed for many years. [8]
Corals images gallery: #1, #2.
[edit] Habitation
Boats at Mandapam that fish in GOMMNP
The islands are uninhabited except for Krusadai, Musal and Nallathanni islands where antipoaching sheds are operating.[16] Along the coast near the park there are about 125 villages which support about 100,000 people who are mainly Marakeyars, a local Community principally engaged in fishing.[8], [4]
[edit] Visitor Information
Glass bottomed boats available at Mandapam cater to tourists visiting the area. Access to the Islands is prohibited.
The nearest railway stations are at Mandapam and Tuticorin.
Contact: S. Shenbagamoorthy, the Wildlife Warden, Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, Tamil Nadu Dept of Environment and Forests, Ramanathapuram, Ramanathapuram Dt., Tamil Nadu. Phone:04567-230079 [8]
Dr.V.K. Melkani, I.F.S. is Chief Conservator of Forests and Director of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust (GOMBRT), 366, Vandikara Street, Solaikili Towers, Ramanathapuram 623 501, Tamil Nadu. Phone: 04567-226 335, Fax: 04567 -229 228, E-mail: gombrt_rnd@yahoo.co.in
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
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?Top SlipIndira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuaryand National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuaryand National Park
Coordinates: 10°25′01″N 77°03′24″E / 10.417, 77.0567
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area• Elevation
958 km² (370 sq mi)• 2,513 m (8,245 ft)
Nearest city
Pollachi
District(s)
Coimbature
Established
1976
Visitation/year
[1]
Governing body
Ministry of Environment and Forests and Tamil Nadu Department of forests
Website: http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_ignp.html
Coordinates: 10°25′01″N 77°03′24″E / 10.417, 77.0567
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park (IGWLS&NP) is a protected area named after Prime Minister Indira Gandhi who visited here on October 7, 1961. It is often called Topslip, a village in the northeast corner of the park which is the main visitor center. This name is derived from the local 19th century practice of sliding Teak timber logs down from the hills. It is located in the Anaimalai Hills of Pollachi, Valparai and Udumalpet taluks of Coimbatore District, Tamilnadu state, South India. The 108 km² National Park is the core area of the 958 km² Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, formerly called Anaimalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
The Park and the Sanctuary are the core of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and is under consideration by UNESCO as as part of The Western Ghats World Heritage site[2]. The Sanctuary and the Palni Hills in Dindigul District form the Anaimalai Conservation Area[3].
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 Tribal Communities
3 Flora and Fauna
4 Visitor Information
5 References
//
[edit] Geography
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
The sanctuary has six administrative ranges, Pollachi: Range Head Quarters at Anaimalai Farm: 109.72 km², Vaalpaarai: Water Falls: 171.50 km², Ulandy: Top Slip: 75.93 km², Amaravathi: Amaravathi Nagar: 172.50 km², Udumalpet: 290.18 km². IGWLS is adjacent to Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary to the west.
Altitude ranges between 340m to 2513 m above sea level. There are 12 major peaks in this area, including:
Local name
Height
English name
Location
Akkamalai
2,483 metres (8,146 ft)
Mean annual rainfall is between 500mm in the south western fringes to 5000mm on the north east.
[edit] Tribal Communities
The IGWS has significant anthropological diversity with more than 4600 Adivasi people from six tribes of indigenous people living in 34 settlements. The tribes are the Kadars, Malasars, Malaimalasars, Pulaiyars, Muduvars and the Eravalars.[4], [5].
[edit] Flora and Fauna
The park is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna typical of the South Western Ghats. There are over 2000 species plants of which about 400 species are of prime medicinal value.
Mammals in the Park include tiger, leopard, sloth bear, dhole or the Asiatic wild dog, golden jackal, leopard cat, jungle cat, rusty-spotted cat, elephant, gaur, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, mouse deer, wild pig, nilgiri langur, common langur, bonnet macaque, lion-tailed macaque, common palm civet, Small Indian Civet, Common Mongoose, Striped-necked Mongoose, Ruddy Mongoose, Smooth Indian Otter, Slender Loris, Indian Giant Squirrel, Spiny Dormouse, Porcupine, Indian Pangolin, Giant Flying Squirrel and Three-striped Palm Squirrel.
IGWS is a Project Elephant sanctuary.
The Steering Committee of Project Tiger granted approval in principle to inclusion of Indira Gandhi WLS and NP and nine additional protected areas under Project Tiger.[6]
Over 250 species of birds have been identified in the Park . Some of the most important groups include, cormorants, ducks, teal, darter, partridge, quail, jungle fowl, spur fowl, pea fowl, parakeets, hornbills, barbets, drongos, orioles, shrikes, warblers, flycatchers, woodpeckers, chloropsis, trogons, kingfishers, storks, egrets, fish eagle, hawk eagles, harriers, falcons, kites, owls and nightjars.
It is home to 15 of 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats including: Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Nilgiri Pipit, Nilgiri Flycatcher, Malabar Grey Hornbill, Rufous Babbler, Crimson-backed Sunbird, White-bellied Treepie, Grey-breasted Laughingthrush, White-bellied Blue Flycatcher, White-bellied Shortwing, Malabar Parakeet, Black-and-orange Flycatcher, Grey-headed Bulbul, Broad-tailed Grassbird and Wynaad Laughingthrush there are unconfirmed reports of the 16th, the Nilgiri Laughingthrush found in the upper regions of the Anamalais around the estates of Vaalpaarai. If true, the sanctuary will be the first to be home to all the endemic species of Western Ghats birds.
Reptiles include toads, leaping frogs, torrent frogs, tree frogs, pythons, cobras, kraits, vipers, grass snakes, forest cane turtles, travancore tortoises, flapshells, star tortoises, flying lizards, chameleons and forest calotes.
315 species of butterflies belonging to five families have been identified in the Anaimalais. 44 are endemic to the Western Ghats. [7]
[edit] Visitor Information
The IGWLS is managed by the Wildlife Warden (Wildlife Warden Office, 178 Meenkarai Road, Pollachi, Ph: 04259-225356) and falls within the administrative control of the Coimbatore Forest Circle headed by the Conservator of Forests, Coimbatore.
Travel by road from Coimbatore to Pollachi (40 km) to the Wildlife Warden's Office for visitor permit and then by road to Top Slip (35 km), or to Udumalpet (40 km - Amaravathi and Udumalpet range), or to Vaalparai (65 km - Vaalparai and Manamboly range)
The ideal months to visit the Park are May to January. Entry time is between 6 am and 6 pm. The Park has a large tourist complex at Top Slip that houses many cottages, rooms, and dormitories for visitors. Visitors can get around the park by trekking and a safari van.[8] [9].
Mudumalai National Park
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Mudumalai National Park
Mudumalai NP
Mudumalai NP (Tamil Nadu)
IUCN Category IV (Habitat/Species Management Area)
Location
Nilgiri, India
Nearest city
Coimbatore
Coordinates
11°30′0″N 76°30′0″E / 11.5, 76.5
Area
321 km²
Established
1940
The Mudumalai sanctuary lies on the northwestern side of the Nilgiri Hills (Blue Mountains), in Nilgiri District, about 80 km north-west of Coimbatore in the westernmost part of Tamil Nadu, on the interstate boundaries with Karnataka and Kerala states in South India.
Contents
[hide]
1 Conservation history
2 Flora and fauna
3 Visitor facilities
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
//
[edit] Conservation history
The park was created in 1940 to become the first wildlife sanctuary in southern India. Originally 60 square kilometres, the sanctuary was enlarged to 295 km² in 1956 and subsequently to its present size of 321 km². The sanctuary is contiguous with Bandipur National Park (874 km²), Wynad Wildlife Sanctuary (344 km²), Sigur and Singara reserve forests. The park is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²), including all of Mudumalai National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.[1]
[edit] Flora and fauna
There are three main types of forest: tropical moist deciduous, tropical dry deciduous and southern tropical thorn. In certain places mixed vegetation types are present. Tropical moist deciduous forest occurs in the western Benne Block, where rainfall is higher than in the other blocks.
Primates found include the Gray langur (Semnopithecus priam) and the Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata). The Tiger (Panthera tigris) (E) is widespread, whereas the Leopard (P. pardus) (T) is most often seen in the Kargudi area. Other carnivores include the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) (V), the Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena), the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) and the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) (I). The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) (E) population totals several hundred animals. Ungulates include the Gaur (Bos gaurus) (V), the Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolor), the Chital (Axis axis), Indian Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), the Indian Spotted Chevrotain (Moschiola meminna), and the Wild Boar (Sus scrofa). Rodents include the Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica maxima) and the Red Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista).
Bird life is rich. Regional endemics include Malabar trogon Harpactes fasciatus and Malabar grey hornbill Tockus griseus. Predatory birds include crested hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus and crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela. It also holds the isolated southern population of the Striped Tit-babbler Macronous gularis.[2] Of the reptiles, monitor lizard Varanus bengalensis is the most regularly observed species.
[edit] Visitor facilities
Information board in Ooty-Mysore highway in Mudumalai
Accommodation in Mudumalai includes a forest rest house and guest houses at Masinagudi, and guest houses at Kargudi, Abhayaranyam and Theppakkadu. Accommodation in the forest rest house and guest houses may be reserved by writing to the Wildlife Warden, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, India.
The nearest airport is at Coimbatore (84km) and the closest railhead at Udhagamandalam (64km). However, in terms of travel practicality, the closest railhead is Mysore (90km),which sits on a major broad gauge line and is served by trains from across the country. The park is most conveniently accessible by road from Mysore on the Mysore-Ooty highway.
There is a cottage after crossing Kargudi and Mudumalai check posts on Ooty road. Bookings can be made from www.wildlifesanctuaryindia.com .Jungle home offers clean, comfortable accommodation at reasonable rates. It is located at the crucial elephant habitat zone. Elephants can be spotted very easily in this region. Trekking, Birdwatching and Fishing are conducted.
There are also night safaris on open top jeeps arranged by resorts and guides who are freely accessible in Masinagudi.The night safaris are conducted on the peripheral roads running through the forest and not deep into the forest
Other Places to visit in this region Include1, The Elephant Feeding Camp - A place where you can interact with Elephants and also see how they are fed.2, Museum - Near the Elephant feeding camp there is a museum where dead animals are preserved. These preserved animals ones lived in the Mudumalai Jungle.3, Moyar River - See how the Moyar river runs through the dense forest. Spotting animals while they come to drink water in the river is fun.4, Elephant Safari and Van Safari Conducted by Tamilnadu forest department.5, Kallatty falls - Located 30Km from Mudumalai forest department . A beautiful falls with breathtaking view.6, Pykara Lake - Located 40 Km from Mudumalai Safari office . It is a clean and scenic lake in between the hills. It is an isolated lake free from pollution and maddening crowed . Boating is conducted here . It is a place worth visiting when you plan to visit Mudumalai.You will remember this scenic spot throughout your life7, Don't forget to Visit the lost cute Baby Elephant .
Jungle Home Provides Information on more interesting places to visit around Mudumalai and accommodation at Mudumalai .
Mukurthi National Park
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?Mukurthi National ParkTamil Nadu • India
IUCN Category II (National Park)
Nilgiri Tahr in Montane grasslands
Mukurthi National Park
Coordinates: 11°16′00″N 76°28.5′00″E / 11.266667, 76.475
Time zone
IST (UTC+5:30)
Area• Elevation
78.46 km² (30 sq mi)• 2,629 m (8,625 ft)
Climate• PrecipitationTemperature• Summer• Winter
• 6,330 mm (249.2 in)• 35 °C (95 °F)• 0 °C (32 °F)
Nearest city
Ootacamund
District(s)
Nilgiri District
Established
12 December 2001
Keystone species
Nilgiri Tahrthe Tamil Nadu state animal
Governing body
Tamil Nadu Forest Department
Website: www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiversity/np_muknp.html
Coordinates: 11°16′00″N 76°28.5′00″E / 11.266667, 76.475 Mukurthi National Park is a 78.46 km² protected area located in the south-eastern corner of the Nilgiris Plateau west of Ootacamund hill station in the northwest corner of Tamil Nadu state in the Western Ghats mountain range of South India. The park is a part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India's first International Biosphere Reserve
The Western Ghats, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²), including all of Mukurthi National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.[1]
The park is characterized by Montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with sholas in a high altitude area of high rainfall, subfreezing temperatures and high winds. It is home to an array of endangered wildlife, including Royal Bengal Tiger and Asian Elephant, but its main mammal attraction is the Nilgiri Tahr. The park was previously known as Nilgiri Tahr National Park.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
3 Fauna
4 Flora
5 Management
6 Visitor information
7 Notes
8 See also
//
[edit] History
Native hill tribe communities including the Toda people have harvested firewood from the sholas and grazed their animals including the Hill Buffalo for centuries. Indiscriminate felling of the sholas started with the establishment of British settlements in Ootacamund, Coonoor and Wellington in the early 1800s. Beginning in 1841 authorities issued contracts to bidders to fell wood from specific sholas in a 'timber conservancy program. In 1868 James Breeds, Commissioner of the Hills, wrote: "...unless conservancy is taken in hand and organized under some efficient system under the control of an experienced officer, the destruction of the sholas is but a question of time." [2]
Bangitipal Rest House and surroundings
Bangitappal (Cannabis tableland), at the southwest end of the park at the confluence of two streams at the head of the Sispara Pass, used to be a halting place on the old Sispara ghat road from Kozhikode to Ooty, constructed in 1832. This pass provided a short land route for postal runners from Ooty to the West Coast in the 19th century and was used for smuggling of cannabis, tobacco and later salt. [3] A forest rest house and a trekkers shed built there in 1930 are now used by park staff and visiting researchers.
Between 1840 and 1856 plantations of several non-native tree species were introduced to the area to satisfy the fuel-wood demand. These included 4 Wattle species(Black Wattle, Silver Wattle, Green Wattle and Blackwood), Eucalyptus, Cyprus, Indian Long leaf Pine and Thorny Gorse. Eucalyptus became the preferred plantation tree.
Unlike the others, the wattles spread by root suckers to quickly cover large areas of native grasslands, including the Mukurthi Hills, and was declared a pest "useful for covering wastelands."[4]. Some Black Wattle plantations were maintained for the leather industry, as their bark yielded tannin.
In 1882 Inspector General of Forests, Dietrich Brandis "recommended bringing the present 1200 acres of plantation up to 5000 acres to create enormous forest blocks "...which would make any remaining sholas redundant forest resources."[5]
In 1920 it was suggested that 10–15 acre plots in the Kundah Hills including the present park area, "be planted up each year in places where sholas have almost or quite disappeared, the most suitable species probably being Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle)" [6] , thus replacing highly diverse endemic and stable ecosystems with an exotic monoculture supporting little animal diversity.
Mukurthi was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1986 and a National Park in 2001, in order to protect the Nilgiri Tahr. [7] pages=45-49
[edit] Geography
Mukurthi National ParkTopographic map 1:250,000
Mukurthi National ParkBounderies and features map
Mukurthi National Park has an elongated crescent shape facing to the west between 11°10' to 11°22' N and 76°22' to 76°35' E.. It is bordered on the west by Nilambur South Forest Division in Kerala, to the northwest by Gudalur Forest Division, to the northeast, east and southeast by South Forest Division and to the south by Mannarghat Forest Division, Kerala. At its southwest tip the peaks of this park straddle the northeast corner of Silent Valley National Park of Kerala.[8]
On the Nilgiri Plateau, the Kundah range of the Nilgiri hills is a ridge on the south-western side of Mukurthi National Park bordering Kerala. The Tamil Nadu/Kerala border here is 39 km long. The park generally slopes towards the east and south receiving water from the Billithadahalla, Pykara and Kundah rivers, and the Upper Bhavani and Mukurthi reservoirs which flow through the park. Also several perennial streams originate in the park, most of which drain into the Bhavani Puzha.[9]
Mukurthi Peak elevation: 2554 m.
Park elevation varies from 1,500 m (4,921 ft) to 2,629 m (8,625 ft), with Kollaribetta 2,629 m (8,625 ft), Mukurthi 2,554 m (8,379 ft), and Nilgiri 2,476 m (8,123 ft) being the highest peaks. With elevations greater than the general level of the plateau, the range possesses some peaks close to the height of Doddabetta, just east of Ooty.
Avalanche hill of this range has twin-peaks of the Kudikkadu (height: 2,590 metres (8,497 ft)) and the Kolaribetta. Derbetta (or Bear Hill) (height: 2,531 metres (8,304 ft)) and Kolibetta (height: 2,494 metres (8,182 ft)), south of the Ouchterlony valley, are a continuation of the Kundah range.
Pichalbetta (height: 2,544 metres (8,346 ft)), Nilgiri Peak and Mukurthi Peak are the important heights of this area. These 3 hills of the Wayanad district are generally low in relation to other heights of the district; but are distinguished in relation to the generally uniform level of this area. [10]
Important peaks in the southwest Sispara/Bangitipal part of the park are Sispara (height: 2,206 metres (7,238 ft)) Anginda(height: 2,383 metres (7,818 ft)), Nadugani (height: 0 metres (0 ft)) and Gulkal (height: 2,468 metres (8,097 ft)).
The park has a harsh environment with annual rainfall varying from 2010 mm to 6330 mm (79–249 inches), night temperature usually below freezing in the winter and wind speeds ranging up to 120 km/h (75 mph). [7]page 13
[edit] Fauna
Black-winged Kite
Indian Red Admiral
Several threatened mammal species live here including Nilgiri Tahr, Indian elephant, Bengal Tiger, Nilgiri Marten, Nilgiri langur and Bonhote's Mouse. Mukurthi is near the northern end of the range of the Nilgiri Tahr. A 3 day census in March 2007 estimated 200 Tahrs in the park including 60 young ones sighted.[11]There are also Leopard, Bonnet macaque, Sambar deer, Barking deer, Mouse Deer, Otter, Jungle cat, Small Indian Civet, Wild dog, Jackal, Black-naped Hare, Common Rat, Shrew, Malabar Spiny Dormouse and Soft-furred Rat.
Avifauna consists mostly of hill birds including the threatened Laughingthrush, Whistling Thrush, Woodcock, Wood Pigeon, Black-and-orange Flycatcher, Nilgiri Flycatcher, Grey Headed Flycatcher Black Bulbul, White-eye, Nilgiri Pipit. The predatory Black-winged Kite, Kestrel and Black Eagle may be seen in the grasslands.
The area is home to many species of reptiles such as the Geckos Dwarf Gecko spp. and Nilgiri Salea Salea horsfieldii, the snakes Horseshoe Pit Viper, Olivaceaous Keelback, Oligodon taeniolatus, Oligodon venustus, Bronze-headed Vine Snake and several Shieldtails of which Perrotet's Shieldtail is most common. Some amphibians here are the Common Indian Toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), Bufo beddomii, Bufo microtympanum and many species of Tree Frogs including Micrixalus opisthorhodus and Rana limnocharis.[7]
Butterflies with Himalayan affinity like the Blue Admiral, Indian Red Admiral, Indian Fritillary, Indian Cabbage white and Hedge blues are seen here. Some streams had been stocked with exotic Rainbow Trout in the past.[12]
[edit] Flora
The area is home to numerous endemic plants particularly of the scapigerous annual Impatiens plants. Alchemilla indica and Hedyotis verticillaris are found only within or on the fringes of this park.
Rhododendron tree in shola
Rhododendrons, Rhododendron arboreum the national flower of Nepal or Rhododendron nilagiricum [13], are seen throughout the grasslands and very large specimens are conspicuous around many sholas. Other common shola trees and shrubs among the 58 species found here include: Syzigium calophyllifolium, Daphiphyllum neilgherrense, Cinnamomum wightii, Vaccinium leschenaulti, Mahonia leschenaulti, Litsea sp., Lasianthes sp., Psychotria sp. and Michelia nilagirica.
Wild Yellow Raspberries grow on the edge of sholas and in disturbed soil along trails and roads
The Edges of most sholas are lined with the shrubs: Gaultheria fragrantissima, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, rubus sp., Bergeris tinctoria, Eurya nitida, Strobilanthes sp., and Helichrysum sp.
The Orchids Eria abliflora, Oberonia santapaui, Aerides ringens, Aerides crispa and Coelogyne odoratissima are found on the high west edge of the park. Among the grasslands are a plethora of Brachycorithis iantha, Satyrium nepalense, Habenaria cephalotes, Seidenfia densiflora, Spiranthes sinensis and Liparis atropurpurea.
The natural habitats of the park have been much disturbed by previously easy motor vehicle access through four different entry points and[14] extensive commercial planting and natural spreading of non-native eucalyptus and wattle (Acacia dealbata, Acacia mearnsii and other species). In addition there is one large, and several smaller hydro-electric impoundments in the area.[15]
Only 20% of the park area has more than a 50% chance of being used by Tahr. If old commercial forests are removed and restored to their original grassland habitat, usable Tahr habitat would increase to 60%.[16]
[edit] Management
Mukurthi National Park is Managed by the Tamil Nadu Department of Forestry with the main objective to conserve the endangered shola-grassland ecosystem and its endemic flora and fauna. The department operates an effective year round anti-poaching program with gun and radio equipped foot patrols operating from anti-poaching camps at Bangitappal, Nadugani, Western Catchment and Mukurthi Fishing Hut.
Grassland restoration from old Wattle forest
Prevention and control of destructive Wildfire is achieved through creation of artificial firebreaks in the form of hand dug fire lines along ridges and cleared trek paths. Local fire watchers are employed for early detection and control during the dangerous December to April fire season. Invasive imported plant species, especially Wattle, Scotch broom and Gorse are being controlled and eliminated from the park through a phased long term program focused on restoration of the originial biota.
Tourism is not a management objective, but the Forest Department does periotically conduct nature awareness and conservation programs for the public and some special interest groups through controlled visits to the Western Catchment and Avalanche areas of the park.
The Forest Department also seeks to identify and acquire contiguous undisturbed crucial habitat areas for future inclusion in the park.[7] pages 48 50
[edit] Visitor information
Management signat Upper Bhavani entrance
Casual tourism and commercial tour operation is not permitted and tourist facilities are not available in the park. Special interest groups are sometimes permitted for supervised educational programs, trekking and camping. There are Forest Rest Houses at Bangitapal, Avalanche, Pykara and some unfurnished trekking sheds.
A mostly down hill 3, 4 or 5 day trek through Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks starts by driving 75 km from Udhagamandalam (Ooty) in 4 hrs and 1 km walk to overnight at Bangitapal. Walk 24 km through Mukurthi Park in 9 hrs to overnight at Walakkad, or overnight half way at the new trekkers bungalow at Sispara peak then continue 12 km steep downhill the next day to Walakkad. Walk 18 km in 7 hrs to overnight at Poochipara. Walk 8 km in 3 hrs to Sairandhiri in Silent Valley, then take a park van out or overnight at Sairandhri and trek 23 km to Mukkali village A forest guide-cum-cook accompanies park visitors during all treks.[17] [18] In some cases the guide may instruct visitors to bend down to drink straight from a stream like a deer and prohibit bathing in a stream so the silt at the bottom is not disturbed and because human body odour might affect the animals.[19]
Application for trekking permits should be made well in advance with: Wildlife Warden - The Nilgiris, Mount Stewart Hill, Udhagamandalam – 643 001 Tamil Nadu, India; Phone: 0423- 2444098; Fax: 0423-2450400; Email: wlwnlg@tn.nic.in[20]
The nearest airport is Coimbatore – 140 km. The nearest Railway station is Udhagamandalam – 45 km. The best seasons are February to May and September to November.[21]
Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park
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Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park (Planned)
Palani Hills WS&NP
Palani Hills WS&NP (Tamil Nadu)
Location
Dindigul
Nearest city
Kodaikanal
Coordinates
10°17′30″N 77°31′0″E / 10.29167, 77.51667
Area
736.87 km² (PRO)
Governing body
Tamil Nadu Ministry of Environment and Forests
The Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is a proposed Protected area in Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu State South India. The Park will be an upgrade and expansion of the Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary being established in 2008. Area is 736.87 km² (PRO) .[1] The park includes about 36% of the 2,068 km² in the Palani Hills.[2][3] The park is located between Latitude 10°7' - 10°28' N and Longitude 77°16' - 77°46' E. Central location 10°17.5′N, 77°31′E is .7 km west of the Aeon centre of Cosmology[4] and 7.4 km N X NE of Kodaikanal.
Contents
[hide]
1 Status
2 Geography
3 Geology
4 Weather
5 Tribes
6 Ecoregions
7 Flora and Fauna
8 Threat aversion
9 See also
10 Notes
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[edit] Status
In the early 1990s, the Tamil Nadu Forest Department submitted a proposal to the State government to protect much of the Palani Hills by declaring the area a wildlife sanctuary or a national park.[5] The Sanctuary has been under consideration of the Government of India in consultation with the Government of Tamilnadu since 1999.[6] The actual park boundaries have not been finalized.
The Palani Hills.
The increasingly important economic role of Eco-tourism, including: trekking, hiking, camping, mountaineering, rock climbing and bird watching may help local vested interests to welcome this new Protected area. It remains to be seen whether the Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park will stimulate or stifle commercial development and tourism. The decision to finally establish the Park must balance short term financial benefits of the status quo versus long term stability of the natural and human community.
[edit] Geography
Palani Hills, Topographic overview, 1;250,000.
The western extremity of the Park is contiguous with Manjampatti Valley in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park and with The Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. The Kurinjimala Sanctuary in Kerala borders the southwestern corner of the Park.[7] These Wildlife Sanctuaries are adjacent to the recently established Eravikulam National Park.
The Park area includes only reserve forest land, including Palni Hills Northern Slope East, Kallar, Palni Hills Southern Slope East, Upper Palni Shola, Allinagaram, and Palni Hills Northern Slope West Reserve Forests in the Dindigul[8] and Kodaikanal Forest Divisions.[9]
These forests are already among the protected areas of Tamil Nadu. Their upgrade to Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park will increase their IUCN status from level VI to II and improve habitat and wildlife conservation.
[edit] Geology
Skamba Falls near:10°17.5234′N, 77°31.4093′E
The Palani Hills are formed of pre-Cambrian gneisses, charnockites and schists; they are among the oldest mountain ranges in India.[10] The Park is an eastward extension of the Western Ghats hills formed by separation of the India-Madagascar-Seychelles blocks of East Gondwana in the Early Cretaceous period about 120 million years ago.
It is surrounded to the north, east and south by the Deccan Plateau formed later in the massive Deccan Traps eruption 65 million years ago.[11]
The Palani hills are most accentuated towards the west, ranging from 1,800 m to 2,553 m (5,906 ft - 8,376 ft). Prominent peaks are: Vandaravu 2,553 m (8,376 ft), Vembadi Shola 2,505 m (8,219 ft), Gundar 2,461 m (8,219 ft), Karunmakadu 2,451 m (8,041 ft), Sandana Parai 2,404 m (7,887 ft) Venkombu 2,327 m (7,635 ft), Tina Vardi 2,270 m (7,448 ft), Perumalai 2,236 m (7,336 ft) and Velori Malai 2,229 m (7,313 ft), The hill station of Kodaikanal stands in a 2,195 m (7,202 ft) high basin at the southern edge of the central part. The eastern end of the park is made of hills 1000-1500 m (3,281 ft - 4,921 ft) high.[12]
The Tamil Nadu Department of Geology and Mining has completed detailed Geo-Technical Studies of the Palni Hills determining moderate to high landslide danger in much of the area.[13]
There are many waterfalls throughout the Park which are popular tourist attractions. Some of the prominent falls associated with the park are: Anju Veedu (27 km from Kodaikanal), Bamen, Bear Shola (2 km from Kodaikanal), Fairy (5 km from Kodaikanal), Glen, Neptune rapids, Pambar (also called Vatakanal)(4 km from Kodaikanal), Silver Cascade (55 m (180 ft) high, 8 km from Kodaikanal), Skamba (8 km from Kodaikanal), Snake and Thalaiyar Falls.
[edit] Weather
Temperature varies from moderate to quite cool - during March to May) the temperature range is between 11°C - 20°C. The temperature can rise to a high of 35°C. During Dec-Feb it is between 8.3°C - 17.3°C. In January, night temperatures sometimes drop to freezing, and thin ice is seen on the lake edges.
The average annual rainfall is 1,650 mm, mostly during the north-east monsoon from June to September.[14] [15]
[edit] Tribes
Paliyan woman & children.
Nomadic Paliyan tribes people have been seen living in some of the several caves in Manjampatti Valley. Paliyan people can be seen near Kukal Cave. The Tamil speaking Pulayan are referred as the MalaPulayans, a group categorized as scheduled caste by State government of Tamil Nadu. Their traditional livelihood is foraging yams and small gaming in the nearby forest areas combined with cultivation of several species of minor millets in small plots located near their hamlets to meet their subsistence requirements.
They live in small hamlets in huts and government constructed colonies. The sedentary life started with the construction of group houses by the government in the early sixties. The community is vertically divided into two sub divisions called Koora and Kanni, further subdivided into 47 sub sects. Each sub sect is called Kootams, which regulates certain social events. Each kootam has it own deity, which is common to the entire group and once yearly the members of the same kootam assemble to worship the deity. [16]
Many native tribals in the Palani Hills have partially assimilated modern culture but are marginalized on the fringes of society. Their social, economic and physical survival has become a difficult challenge for them and several public and private agencies. Their ancient culture in this area is well documented [17], [18].
Relics and artifacts of the Paliyan tribes people can be seen in the Shenbaganur Museum.[19]
[edit] Ecoregions
Palni Hills Vegetation MapFull Map with Legend:[20]
There is a wide diversity of Endemic species in the Park's diverse Ecoregions. The lower elevations, 250 m - 1000 m, are part of the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion. Above 1000 m, the forests transition to evergreen South Western Ghats montane rain forests. In the highest portions of the park, above 2,000 m, the forests give way to shola - grassland mosaic, made of frost-tolerant montane grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted shola forests in the valleys.
The Palni hills are the easternmost part of the Western Ghats of India, which is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots of the world. Some of the very rare and endangered plants and animals of India are found here. including intact relics of primary indigenous vegetation and a large number of non-native plants.[21]
[edit] Flora and Fauna
Nilgiri Tahr
Grizzled Giant Squirrel
Indian Elephant
Mammals: Wild Boars are common in areas away from human habitation and cultivation.Threatened species in the park area include: Indian Elephant, Gaur (Wild Ox), Nilgiri Tahr and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.
Bengal Tiger populations in the adjacent Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Project Tiger Kalakad - Mundanthurai Reserve[22] in the Agasthyamalai hills could expand back into this area when it is better protected.
Plants: The comprehensive source on this subject is currently in print: "The Flora of the Palni Hills, South India" , Tiruchirapalli, , 3 vols., xcvi, 1880 p., figs., maps, $193 (set). ISBN 81-900539-3-0. Contents:[23]
Volume I ISBN 8190053949: Polypetalae: Dedication. Preface. Novelties in this Flora. Precursory or related publications. References. Introduction. I. The Palni hills: 1. Location and physical features. 2. Kodaikanal: taluk and town. 3. Rivers. 4. Roads. 5. Table 2: Gazetteer of localities. 6. Climatic conditions at Kodaikanal. 7. Geology and soils. 8. History. 9. The vegetation: A. Native; B. Alien. 10. References. II. Plant explorations on the Palnis: 1. Past explorations: 1. The Bournes. 2. The Fysons. 3. The Shembaganur team. 4. Natural History Centre at Shembaganur (SHC). 5. Recent explorations. 6. References. 2. Present exploration: 1. Background and scope. 2. Field trip report. 3. Phytogeographical findings. 4. Ethnobotany. 5. Nature conservation. 3. The present Flora: Format and conventions. Acknowledgments. Family sequence. Key to families. Dicotyledones: I. Polypetalae: 1. Ranunculaceae. 2. Alangiaceae.
Volume II ISBN 8190053957: Gamopetalae: 1. Caprifoliaceae. 2. Labiatae. III. Monochlamvdeae: 1. Plantaginaceae. 2. Salicaceae.
Volume III ISBN 8190053965: Monocotyledones: 1. Orchidaceae. 2. Gramineae. II. Gymnospermae: 1. Gnetaceae. 2. Cycadaceae.
Kurinji flowers (Strobilanthes kunthiana) which blossom in spectacular fields of violet only once in 12 years are threatened. [24].
[edit] Threat aversion
There is decreasing biodiversity, deforestation, grasslands destruction, monoculture tree plantations, and invasive exotic plant species in the Park. There is sewage pollution, solid waste pollution, Mercury contamination[25], sound pollution, visual pollution, uncontrolled tourism, overdevelopment and lake eutrophication in and near Kodaikanal town. The Government of Tamil Nadu and several local NGO conservation groups are actively working to reduce some of these threats:
The Government of Tamilnadu completed establishment of a litter free zone and awareness campaign in Kodaikanal in 2000 at a cost of Rs 1. lakh.[26]
The Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board, the Public Works Department and the local bodies are executing Bioremediation of Kodaikanal Lake under the National Lake Conservation Programme, with an expenditure of Rs.33.90 lakhs incurred till 2007.[27]
The Tamil Nadu Forest Dept. is implementing forest maintenance and restoration works over a period of 5 years from 2006-2007. Government of Tamil Nadu has sanctioned a sum of Rs.30.00 crores for the following components:
Conservation and eco-restoration of degraded forests in Nilgiris and Palani Hills. During 2007-2008, it is proposed to take up degraded sholas over an extent of 300 ha. and to carry out other maintenance and improvement works at a cost of Rs. 590.75 lakhs.
Improvement of roads in the forest areas of Tamil Nadu.
Bio-diversity conservation.
Maintenance and special repairs to Forest Department buildings.
Raising shola seedlings for afforestation.
A sum of Rs.1327.50 lakhs has been released for this purpose during 2006-2007.[28]
The Palani Hills Conservation Council (PHCC) was formed by concerned residents in 1985 One of its first goals was to support and push for the creation of a national park or a wildlife sanctuary in the Palni Hills. Zafar Futehally and M.S. Viraraghavan were its leaders. The PHCC made a clear connection between natural forests and water security and coined the phrase: "The health of the hills is the wealth of the plains." The PHCC generated a National Park proposal used by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department. One of the council's major contributions has been the creation of nurseries for indigenous trees. Today, thanks to its efforts, young shola trees thrive at Kodai institutions and in private gardens. The organisation sought to restrict unsustainable building development in the 1990s. The PHCC has been active in the case against mercury contamination of the once beautiful Pambar Shola.[29], [30]
The Vattakanal Conservation Trust promotes the conservation of Palni Hills' native plants and habitats by raising plant nurseries, establishing conservation gardens, working with the Forest Department to restore habitats and acquiring properties to ensure survival of specific species and ecosystems[31]
Kodaikanal International School supports and leads environmental initiatives in the surrounding area. It offers an International Baccalaureate Program course on Environmental Systems.[32].
The Save Kurinji Campaign Council organises campaigns and programmes for conservation of the Kurinji plant and its habit.[33].
The Tamil Nadu Green Movement works on Nature Education, Conservation awareness, Judicial intervention, media awareness and works with other NGOs in the Western Ghats. [34][35].
Elephant Valley at Vilpatti, 8 km NW of Kodaikanal, is a 100 acre private nature reserve and organic farm welcoming eco-tourists. They promote the conservation of traditional varieties of fruits, vegetables and cereals, including vegetables of all colours, shapes and sizes and orchards of lime, orange, avocados, guavas and amla intercropped with coffee, pepper, vanilla, cinnamon, nutmeg, mangoes, jack fruit, pomegranate, guavas and bananas.[36]
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